Murderous Milk

The Victorians were an enterprising and resourceful crowd. Everything from dust, chimney soot and even dog mess – that was used in the tanning industry – could be recycled and reused again. Victorian society despised waste and took every step possible to avoid it, even if that meant deadly consequences.

Milk in early Victorian London had become difficult for shop proprietors to obtain. With the sprawling city pushing dairy farmers further away and no effective form of refrigeration, it had become strenuous to transport to the inner-city masses. While there were a few cow sheds within the gloomy city limits, they produced too little for the demand and the abhorrent condition the cows were kept in made their produce extremely questionable. As railways started to crisscross the country mass transit of goods became a realised reality for many industrial sectors including dairy. Early morning goods trains brought this liquid quickly from the countryside into the teeming city which collectively sighed in relief but this, however, did not stop large amounts of the milk from spoiling due to non-refrigeration.

The enterprising Victorians turned to science. It was found that by adding boracic acid to spoilt milk it removed both the sour taste and the foul smell thus making it perfect for consumption, or so they thought. This was considered a wonderful discovery and celebrated by Victorian housewives as the milk was seen to have been purified. The tip was even recommended by the Victorian housewife’s deity, Mrs Beeton who said that boracic was, “quite a harmless addition.” Sadly, she was gravely incorrect.

Although borax acid had made the milk drinkable it was an aggressively toxic chemical. Even in small amounts it could cause nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and diarrhoea and considering one of the biggest consumers of milk are babies and small children, this could prove fatal. Alongside this danger, the borax did not remove the bacteria that had evolved during the spoiling process, in large quantities, which had given the milk its sour taste and smell. This bacterial breeding ground provided a perfect habitat for Bovine TB to multiply. Bovine TB was found in large quantities of milk produced for human consumption during this period which had a high potential of causing tuberculosis in humans.

It is difficult to estimate how many died due to the effects of boracic acid or of the bacterial swamp which was masked by this miraculous ‘purifying powder’. The effects were unconnected for years and the effects unabated until the introduction of pasteurisation which killed off much of the bacteria in the milk. Advances in transport, refrigeration and in scientific knowledge eventually lead to milk that could be kept fresh, free for dangerous bacteria and without the need for boric acid that we enjoy today.

 

Image taken from Gentle author, Charles Spurgeon’s Londoners: http://spitalfieldslife.com/2014/03/09/charles-spurgeons-londoners/

Animal Bombs

WW2 Russian Anti-Tank dog

WW2 Russian Anti-Tank dog

 

The history of war is the history of suffering, death and destruction. During the Second World War this destruction was certainly not restricted to mankind. Of course animals became casualties of war through indirect means, such as bombing, hunger and exposure. However in WW2 many combating nations sought to use animals in order to bring destruction to their enemy. This post will highlight how dogs and bats were weaponised for war.

 

Dogs are one of the most loyal and beloved animals within many nations, however during WW2 it was decided that man’s best friend could make a useful weapon. 1941 marked the beginning of Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the USSR, which threw the Red Army and the Russian nation into retreat and destruction. In an attempt to combat the German tanks the Red Army decided that dogs would be an effective means of delivering an explosive device. Training dogs to do this was, in theory, not particularly difficult. The handlers would let the dogs go hungry and when suitable famished, would place food under a tank. The idea was that before a battle the dogs would be brought to the front hungry so that when they were released they would scurry under the German tanks in the hope of finding food. In order to destroy the tanks the dogs would be fitted with a back pack, filled with explosives and armed with a lever that would of course be activated when under the tank, destroying both the tank and the dog. Ironically in practice the plan didn’t entirely work as intended. The dogs had been trained with Soviet tanks so unsurprisingly when released in battle, many went under the Soviet tanks thus destroying them! Although not as success as intended, the Russia anti-tank dog demonstrated the creative and utilitarian ideas deployed by the Red Army during their Great Patriotic War as they attempted to stave off destruction and defeat.

 

As war in the Pacific and Asia theatre dragged on the American Government continued to explore way in which they could gain an upper hand over their Japanese enemy. Japanese cities were identified as being predominately constructed from wood and so ideas began to emerge around how these cities could be destroyed, of course the most effective tool to do this was fire. The problem that they faced was how to deliver this fire to the enemy. Of course bomber air craft could deliver incendiary bombs however these were inaccurate and could be costly in materials and in aircraft if the Japanese put up an effective defence. One of the ideas that emerged was that of the bat bomb. It was identified that during the day bats hide in caves or other dark areas. An idea emerged that if bats could be released over Japanese cities during the daylight they would soon fly down and find dark hiding places within the roofs and crevices of houses, warehouses and factories. In terms of the incendiary a small devise was attached to the bat using surgical string and would detonate through a time delay fuse, thus setting the cities alight in a surprising instance. It was planned that the bats would be refrigerated to make them go into an early hibernation, loaded into special built bombs and dropped over a Japanese city. As the bomb fell a parachute would open and as it slowly dropped to the floor different levels where the bats were stored would open up and with the increasing hot air surrounding them the bats would awake and fly away to find dark cover. In early tests there were some successes, even if in one incident the bats were dropped too early from the aircraft and set fire to US military buildings, the bat bomb was demonstrated it could work. The small bat bombers however were not deployed on Japanese cities as by the time it was ready to be used its destructive power was miniscule compared the US government preferred solution to ending the war, that of the nuclear bombs.

 

Images taken from:

Diana C Cooper, ‘Anti-Tank Dogs: Sent on Suicide Missions’, Famous Dogs In History, < http://dogs-in-history.blogspot.co.uk/2016/07/anti-tank-dogs-sent-on-suicide-missions.html&gt;

 

Further information:

Diana C Cooper, ‘Anti-Tank Dogs: Sent on Suicide Missions’, Famous Dogs In History, < http://dogs-in-history.blogspot.co.uk/2016/07/anti-tank-dogs-sent-on-suicide-missions.html&gt;

 

Jilly Cooper, Animals in War (London: Corgi Books, 1984)

 

Robert F. Dorr, ‘Brilliant Mistakes: The Bat Bomb’, Defence Media Network, < http://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/brilliant-mistakes-the-bat-bomb/&gt;

The Monarchs Behind

The history of monarchies across the globe is peppered by conflict, opulence and political intrigue. Throughout their reigns monarchs have controlled the prospects of their courtiers and the fashion of their time. Usual monarchs influenced the zeitgeist by giving patron to certain artist or introduction new fashions and food, however this post will show how some monarchs influenced their times through their own bottom.

Louis XIV, known as the Sun King, ruled France from 1643 until his death in 1715 reigning for an astonishing 72 years. Louis led France into an absolutist monarchy in which he was the supreme authority in the land answerable to no person but God.  This demigod, who’s reign was ordained by God himself still suffered from worldly illness. When Louis was a child he suffered from small pox, a common disease, and other ailments such as measles, colds and gout. At the age of 47 Louis began to experience pain and after a period of increasing pain it was found the King had a fistula. A fistula is a small tunnel that develops between the end of the bowel and the skin near the anus. The pain grew meaning Louis could no longer sit or walk very far, unknown to most of his courtiers. Eventually Charles- Francois Tassy a barber surgeon decided that the fistula should be cut, a dangerous operation especially with the threat of infection. After a period of practice on animals and reluctant prisoners, Tassy performed the procedure under no anaesthetics on the King using homemade implements. (See images)

The king survived the procedure and by three months was back to riding around Versailles. Bizarrely, having a fistula and having the royal operation became extremely fashionable in the French court, whether people had one or not. Some courtiers even took to wearing bandages around their rear, just like the King. Charles Francois Tassy was the new star at court, presented with gifts of land and money from the king but also most importantly raising the profile of physicians and the position throughout France.

Royal Patronage was always crucial for members of court to rise in the world either with greater titles, responsibilities or more alluring positions. Henry VIII is possible one of England’s greatest known monarchs, especially for his love life which culminated in having six wives. Henry did however create a royal position that offered a large amount of one on one time with the king which could mean a gentleman could gain the kings trust and put his personal interests directly to the monarch. The Groom of the Kings Close Stool, shortened to Groom of the Stoll was a position where the King appointed a man to monitor his meals and organise the necessities around his predicted bowl movements.  The Groom of the stool would also be responsible with helping the monarch undress so that they could relieve themselves and ensure that there was water, towels and a wash bowl for the monarchs use. It is commonly believed that the Groom would clean the Royal behind, however there is no evidence for this.

Ultimately the position of the Groom of the Stool was a much sought after position due to high salary but more for its personal contact with the king. A Groom of the Stool under King George III, John Stuart, went on to be Prime Minister under the patronage of his king. Incredibly the position continued until 1901 when Edward VII abolished the position. Ultimately for nearly 400 years, it paid to be close to the monarch’s toilet.

Images- The implements used to cut Louis XIV fistula.

Images taken from, Garry Littman, ‘The Royal fistula that changed the face of surgery’, Bilman, <http://www.bilan.ch/garry-littman/english-room/royal-fistula-changed-face-surgery&gt;

Sources

AuroraVonG, ‘The Royal Fistula’, Party Like 1660, <http://partylike1660.com/the-royal-fistula/&gt;

Ben Johnson, ‘Groom of the Stool’, HISTORIC UK, <http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/Groom-of-the-Stool/&gt;

Jam, Jam, Jam

“Tickler’s Jam! Tickler’s Jam!
How I love old Tickler’s Jam
Plum and apple in one pound pots
Sent from England in ten ton lots
Every night when I must sleep
I’m dreaming that I am
Forcing my way up the Dardanelles
With a pot of Tickler’s Jam.”

 

During the First World War Ticklers Jam became a household name throughout the United Kingdom and many places across the world as it became one of the staples of the British Army during the war. Ticklers jam had more than a dining purpose for the men in the front line trenches and whose popularity would plummet almost immediately after the war.

 The Ticklers jam factory was established in 1878 in Grimsby, Lincolnshire England by Thomas Tickler, with a factory also established in Southall later in the period. In 1914 Ticklers Ltd secured a substantial army contract to provide the army with plum and apple jam, a contract worth £1 million in 1914 prices.

 Tickles jam gained a reputation which perhaps wasn’t the beneficial to it marketing department as it was often described as coming in “two colours, green and red but both tasting the same.” Although different varieties were available Ticklers seemed to the men at the front to be the only preserve produced.

 The men at the front were extremely more utilitarian when it came to their food packaging than we are today. Ticklers jam, send to the front in tins were used for a variety of different purposes such as vases to hold flowers and more bizarrely homemade grenades. Ticklers artillery were Tickler jam tins packed with guncotton, scrap metal and a simple fuse. This simple projectiles show a bottom up approach to adapting to the challenges of trench warfare. These improvised explosive devices would be replaced by the more effective mills grenade which would become a staple of the battlefield. After the war unsurprisingly Ticklers never took a command of the market and production finally ceased in the late 1950’s.

 

Sources

Rod Collins, ‘Ticklers Jam Grimsby’, Lincolnshire thro’ History, life, Lens & Words, < http://www.rodcollins.com/wordpress/&gt;   

Martin Pegler, Soldiers’ Songs and Slang of the Great War (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2014)

Russia’s Most Terrifying Enemy

During its long history the Russian nation has fought many deadly enemies, from the Mongols in the 13^th century, Napoleon and his Imperial Guard in 1812, Nazi Germany during the Great Patriotic War and in more recent times the West. But there is one enemy who some believe are still at war with the Russian nation, while others believe the conflict began in 1853 ended in 1966. The Russian threat came not from a World Super power but rather the Northern English market town of Berwick upon Tweed …

 

Contrary to the rather looming introduction the war between Russia and Berwick upon Tweed became one of history’s many diplomatic irregularity. Berwick upon Tween located on the border between England and Scotland was defined in 1502 under the Treaty of Everlasting Peace between Scotland and England as being a part of England but not in England. This resulted in any acts of parliament or any other legal documents Berwick would be named individually. With this in mind when in 1853 Great Britain declared war on Russia, known as the Crimean War, the document stated that war was declared by “Victoria, Queen of Great Britain, Ireland, Berwick upon Tweed and all British Dominions.” However during the Treaty of Paris of 1856 when peace was made between the waring nations, Berwick was not named in the treaty, leaving the border town in theory, at war.

 

Although Berwick was not mentioned in the 1856 peace treaty, there is still debate surrounding whether Berwick is still at war with Russia or when they made peace. One argument states that Berwick did make peace in 1856 as the Wales and Berwick Act of 1746 stated that all references to England were to include both Wales and Berwick and so in the Paris Peace Treaty although Berwick was not mentioned, it was enclosed as part of England. Contrary to this fact it is rumoured that in 1966 the Major of Berwick, Robert Knox signed a peace treaty with a Russian diplomat where it has been said that Knox commented, “Tell the Russians they can sleep easy in their beds.” As comical as Knox’s comment is there is very little evidence to support the supposed 1966 peace treaty as there are no official paper nor do contemporary newspapers comment on the event. And so the questions still remains, when did Berwick upon Tweed and the Russian nation make peace?

 

Sources

Graham Spicer, ‘Myth Or Reality? Berwick Revisits Its War With Russia’, Culture 24, < http://www.culture24.org.uk/history-and-heritage/art38768&gt;

Michael Southwick, ‘Berwick v. Russia and other Unfinished Wars,’ North-East History Tour, < http://northeasthistorytour.blogspot.co.uk/2010/06/berwick-v-russia-and-other-unfinished.html&gt;  

Disney’s Education for Death

 

 

One of Disney’s darker information films created during the Second World War is that on ‘An Education for Death: The making of a Nazi.’ This 1943 Disney production takes the audience through the dark childhood and upbringing of a boy named Hans, displaying the process from innocence, too a brain washed solider marching to war and death. Before discussing the narration of this film I think it is important to identify the motivations and overall message first. The tone of the film is strange as although at the end of the message is that these indoctrinated soldiers march to their death against the allied forces, there is undoubtedly moments of understanding and sympathy, especially for an ill Hans and his mother who are threatened by the anonymous Nazi, representative of the German state. In 1943 the allied were much more confident than they had been in 1942. Although D day was yet to come, Britain and America had won against Rommel the Desert Fox in North Africa and prepared for the invasion of Sicily, while the Russian had halted the German advance and now begun the bloody task of pushing them back to Berlin. With this in mind the film looks to the future and by telling the story of Hans the American government in collaboration with Disney hope to disconnect and absolve the ordinary German citizen and soldiers of association with Nazism, as they knew many were pushed into accepting their doctrine through fear and indoctrination.

 

The story of Hans begins with his parents registering his birth with the anonymous German official who first checks their heritage as any person with Jewish Grandparents were considered Jews themselves. The official then checks the banned names list, headed by Franklin and Winston the leaders of the Western Allies and after being satisfied that Hans is not banned he hands Hans’ mother a hereditary passport with spaces for twelve children. Under the Nazis mothers who had eight children were award the Motherhood cross (1^st Class order) while in 1942 the Gold Cross with Diamonds was created for mothers of 12. These military honours were awarded on the 12^th of August each year, the date being significant as it was the date of Hitler’s mother’s birthday.

 

The German fairy tale shows the Nazi idealised rise of Hitler, however Disney were very clever by using lightening as Hitler attempts to push ‘German’ on his horse. In doing so Disney alludes to the unforeseen events of the Wall Street Crash and the death of President Hindenburg, two events which favoured Nazi politics and advance to power. The story of the rabbit and the fox told to Hans in school that was designed to teach children the importance of race superiority and the survival of the fittest amongst man. The children can be seen in their Hitler youth uniforms, a militarist children’s organisation set up to instil the teaching of Nazism and soldiering into children from an early age. The teacher is also shown in a uniform which could mean one of two thing. The first that he is a leader/ instructor in the Hitler Youth, or it could be a comical reference to the fact that all teachers in Germany had to be a member of the Nazi Socialist Teachers League.

 

At the end the audience watches Hans grow into a solider of the Wehrmacht but as the narrator describes, he sees, says or no more than the party want, the culmination of his education, for death. Once again I return to the films suggestion of sympathy and motivation. The film seems to again suggest that for children like Hans who have grown up under the Nazi regime and had taken up arms were not to blame. Instead these once innocence were warped by ideology and as the films says, ‘in him is planted no seed of laughter, hope, tolerance or mercy. For him only marching and hailing, hailing and marching.’

Donald Ducks Patriotic Duty

 

In 1942 Disney released a propaganda film for the American Government to encourage people to do something which was considered essential to the US’ war effort. The film begins with an upbeat song which calls upon America to pull together and show the World their Yankee Doddle spirit, ending with Donald Duck saluting with Star Spangled Banners rising in his eyes. The radio then goes on to discuss the new spirit in American, “a spirit of a free people united again in a common cause to stamp tyranny from the Earth” all signified by Donald Ducks disgust that “our very shores have been attacked,” referring to the Pearl Harbour attack of December 7^th 1941 which united the country. It is clear that Donald Duck is willing to do his part and after the radio tells him that role he is about to announce won’t get him a medal, will mean a sacrifice and will be a vital of help. This all results in Donald Duck begging the radio to tell him what this duty is and how he can contribute to the war effort. Well what could it be, a role of vital importance that will help stamp tyranny from the world? To fight in the Navy? To join the workforce? No, rather Donald Duck needs to pay his income tax…

 

The Second World War became a period of US history where citizens were happy and indeed proud to pay their taxes in knowledge that it would support the war effort in the fight against the Axis powers. The radio/ narrator continues by talking Donald Duck through his tax return, accompanied by his typically Disney stationary characters, full of wit and humour. For the remainder of ‘The Spirit of 1942’ film, after Donald Duck has eagerly taken his tax return to Washington, the narrator then shows how Donald Ducks and the audiences taxes will be used to bury, sink and ‘beat to earth the evil destroyer of freedom and peace.’ In the end after the destruction of the ‘evil’ axis war machine the film shows a powerful display of nationalism and patriotism. As the silhouettes of tanks, guns and aircraft move across the screen the camera pans to a sunset sky, with the clouds striped and red while in the top left corner the clouds have cleared to show the stars of the night sky, of course to show the star spangled banner. The narrator then gives a stirring speech reiterating Roosevelt’s and the US’ four key war aims, freedom of Speech, of worship, freedom of want and fear, and the final crescendo to this patriotic film campaign, ‘taxes will keep Democracy on the march!’

A Deadly Publicity Campaign

Crush

Crush- Point of impact

Crush- Boiler explosion

Many companies use publicity campaigns to regain customers, promote a new product or to general attract attention, but not many cases end in death and injury to the general public. In 1886 William Crush a general passenger agent for the Katy Railroad who was considered a conservative and solid citizen had the idea of slamming two 35 ton steam locomotives into each other in front of an audience to attract attention to the railroad he worked for. What a brilliant idea I hear you shout, what could go wrong?

 

Crush decided to build a temporary four mile track 15 miles north of the town of Waco, Texas. In addition a grand stand was constructed for VIP’s, two wells and a circus tent was put up to serve as a dining hall for the large crowds. The actual event was free to watch but because the track was 15 miles from the nearest town almost all the visitors had to use the Katy Railroad which is where the money would be made. The organizers expected 20,000 – 25,000 spectators however on the day of the event, September 15^th 1896 the crowds swelled to between 30,000- 40,000! There were so many spectators that political figures decided to use the event as a platform to give speeches and luckily Crush had hired 200 constables to control the crowds.

 

Before the event there had been discussions about the safety of such an event. It was worried that the boilers which contain boiling water and high-pressure steam could rupture and explode. Crush had consulted with the Katy railroad engineered who had ensured him that the boilers were designed to resist rupture in a high speed crash and would not exploded. With such confidence just after 5pm Crush mounted on a large black horse raised his hat to signal the 35 ton locomotives to begin their charge. The engineers on board each train put the throttles to full and once the locomotives had gained some speed they jumped clear. The engines took only two minutes to close the distance and were traveling at around 60mph. The trains collided almost exactly on the spot which they were expected too, unexpectedly however the boilers of both locomotives exploded firing pieces of metal into the crowd. Ernest Darnell, a teenager was killed when a 10 pound section of brake chain nearly cleaved his head in to, while another chunk of iron hit a local farmer’s daughter which fractured her skull. Other shrapnel wounded many other spectators while steam and hot metal scorched others who hurried towards the wrecks for souvenirs.

 

Despite the deadly outcome the publicity campaign essential worked. Crush was sacked on the evening of the event in anticipation of the back lash, but the reaction was relatively small and so Crush was reinstated the day after. The event was also immortalized in music by Scott Joplin who wrote ‘The Great Crush Collision.’ Strangely the fondness for train crashes did not end but rather continued with crashes arranged at events such as the 1913 California State Fair, fortunately in this instance the boilers did not exploded and spectators were not killed.

 

Information and images taken from The Museum of Unnatural Mystery, ‘The Great Texas Train Crash at Crush’, <http://www.unmuseum.org/crash.htm>

 

Information taken from History Net, ‘Crush’s Locomotive Crash Was a Monster Smash’, < http://www.historynet.com/crushs-locomotive-crash-was-a-monster-smash.htm>

The Stiffs Express

Necropolis train- 1902

Necropolis Station today

Necropolis station

Necropolis logo

When reading about  a train filled with the dead it was hard not to conjure up images of some awful ‘zombies on a train’ low budget film featuring C list celebrities with a story line as dismal as Adam Sandler’s Jack and Jill. But in any case the London Necropolis Railway, affectionately termed the ‘Stiffs Express’ shows an interesting capitalisation of death. During the 19^th century London’s population boomed, the population numbered around 958,863 (1801). By 1841 the population had grown to 1,948,417 and increased almost 3 times by 1881 with the capital’s population at 3,815,544. With such a population increase mortality in the capital rocketed and a problem emerged concerning what to do with all the dead. During the Victorian Period cremation was virtually unpractised and so graves were need for all the cadavers. The inner city grave yards were over filling with graves being reused and the previous occupant’s bones spread across the grass which as well as being a gruesome sight, increased the chance of disease spreading.

 

In response to the grave shortage in London Sir Richard Broun and Richard Sprye bought a 1,500 acre plot just outside Woking, about 25 miles outside of London which was soon named the Brookwood Cemetery. To transport both mourners and the dead it was thought that the railway could be used but the bustle of the usual passenger trains were not seen to be dignified enough for a Victorian funeral coupled with the recurring social issue for the middle and upper class of having to be in close proximity to their social inferior. In response the Necropolis railway was created and inaugurated on the 13^th of November 1854, with a dedicated platform at Waterloo Station. The timetable was designed so that during the night coffins would be transported from London to Brookwood Cemetery while the mourners would travel in the day. On both of these services class was still clearly visible. As with normal train services mourners could purchases a First, Second or Third class ticket but more bizarrely the trains which pulled the coffins were also spit into class, meaning the rich deceased did not have to mingle with the cadavers of the poor. The railway operators were also aware of religious differences of those on board which resulted in two stations at Brookwood, one for the Anglican dead while the other was for nonconformists and non-believers.

 

The Railways London terminus moved in 1902 from Waterloo Station to its own dedicated site on Westminster Bridge Road, the station can still be seen today. The Railway never lived up to expectation carrying around 3,000 (6.5% of London’s dead) corpse a year which was far below what was expected. Bizarrely because a golf course was constructed close the Brookwood Cemetery golfers sometimes used the necropolis line as it was cheaper than the mainline service which meant them dressing as mourners for their journey to get changed at the club house.

 

By 1930 the line was only running once or twice a week from London as other cemeteries and motor hearse were becoming more popular and taking business away Brookwood and the Necropolis line. The final blow came during the Second World War when on the 16 April 1941 the Luftwaffe bombed London which caused serve damage to the Westminster Bridge Road station with the locomotive used on the line taking serve damage.  At the end of the war the company decided that it would not be profitable to rebuild the station and continue to operate the line and so the service was dissolved. Although this official funeral train had stopped, regular passenger service continue to carry coffins in the brake van with the practice of carrying coffins by rail only being banned in 1988!

 

Information

 

taken from, Planet Slade, ‘Last train home’, <http://www.planetslade.com/necropolis-railway1.html>

Information and pictures taken from, Dark Roasted Blend, ‘London Necropolis Railway’, <http://www.darkroastedblend.com/2013/06/london-necropolis-railway.html>

Churchill’s Weird Idea!

 

Ice carrier

Ice carrier plans

The history of the Second World War is littered with weird and strange invention and ideas from the bat bomb, the Soviet anti-tank dog and the flying jeep. One of the most bizarre of these weapons was the ice fleet, literally ships including aircraft carriers made entirely of ice. Unfortunately this ice fleet was never put into action but the story of Project Habakkuk is an interesting one.

 

By 1942 the Battle of the Atlantic was becoming pivotal as German U boats attempted to starve Britain of supplies by destroying shipping between Britain and her main suppliers, the United States and Canada. Although aircraft could partly cover the convoys, their fuel range was limited as so there was an air gap between Greenland and Iceland where the U boats could hunt without harassment from Allied aircraft. Geoffrey Pyke had considered how a floating iceberg could be created to support a run way. In the knowledge that ice was weak and could shatter Pyke added wood pulp to the water before freezing which created pykrete a strong durable material. The material was first brought to Churchill’s attention when Lord Louis Mountbatten dropped a chunk of this pykrete between Churchill’s legs while he was in the bath which amazing did not melt in the warm water. It was believed that a ship made of this pykrete would be stronger than steel and could be self-healing as any holes could quickly be patched up with freezing water.

 

Churchill quickly became enchanted with the project and hoped for an entire fleet, with ice carriers being deployed of the coast of France and the Indian Ocean, each one measuring 2,000 feet long, 300 feet wide and walls forty feet thick which would have made them the largest floating structures ever built. Each carrier was planned to carry 300 aircraft including spitfires and hurricanes which were not folding wing aircraft.  The next step was for a small scale model to be built on Patricia Lake in Canada in 1943. The model was 60 feet long and 30 feet wide and was kept frozen by a 1 horsepower motor. It was soon found that an extensive series of pipes to run coolant would be needed to keep the pykrete frozen, but ultimately the scale model remained frozen and afloat. Costs for the project although soon spiralled and the amount of materials which would be needed for just one ship would be immense. Churchill soon doubted the projects future as costs spiralled higher and higher, far greater than Britain could not afford.

 

By 1944 the project to build an ice fleet was cancelled. The battle of the Atlantic had been won as American mass produced aircraft and ships took to the battle and the air pocket was closed with aircraft which had a further range. Other projects such as the Manhattan project were inevitable to take the lion’s share of funding from the British and American Governments. Although this project was not carried out it is a demonstration of how during the dark periods of the Second World War governments and armies invested in unconventional ideas in an attempt to gain the advantage over their enemy.

 

Information and pictures taken from: I09, ‘Winston Churchill’s plan to fight Nazis with massive aircraft carriers made from ice’, <http://io9.gizmodo.com/5985335/winston-churchills-plan-to-fight-nazis-with-massive-aircraft-carriers-made-from-ice>